BIOGEOGRAFI (AG2243)

 

NAMA: HAIRYNATAL BIN GENTUA

NO. MATRIK: HA2005-3613

 

Berikan huraian kepada setiap yang berikut berdasarkan contoh kes yang sesuai. Adaptasi fisiologi, morfologi dan tingkah laku.

 

            Adaptasi fisiologi, morfologi, dan tingkah laku ini adalah merupakan satu cara dimana haiwan dan tumbuhan menyesuaikan diri dengan persekitaran yang baru. Punca daripada masalah ini disebabkan oleh ekosistem haiwan dan tumbuhan itu terganggu dan juga disebabkan oleh perubahan dari segi suhu secara semula jadi. Antara jenis gangguan termasuklah kebakaran, banjir, angin atau ribut dan juga aktiviti manusia.

            Adaptasi memberi maksud penyesuaian diri terhadap tekanan persekitaran untuk membolehkan sesuatu organisma itu akan terus hidup. Terdapat tiga jenis adaptasi iaitu adaptasi morfologi, adaptasi fisiologi dan adaptasi tingkah laku. Adaptasi morfologi ini merujuk kepada bentuk fizikal haiwan dan tumbuhan, manakala adaptasi fisiologi pula merujuk kepada fungsi anggota fizikal atau organ organisma tersebut. Manakala adaptasi tingkah laku pula merujuk kepada perubahan tingkah laku organisma tersebut.

            Adaptasi morfologi atau merupakan penyesuaian bentuk tubuh. Bagi haiwan yang berada dikawasan panas, haiwan tersebut perlu menyesuaikan diri untuk mengelak daripada kenaikan suhu badan. Untuk itu, ia perlu beradaptasi untuk menyingkirkan haba badan yang berlebihan. Dalam menyesuaikan diri dikawasan panas ini haiwan biasanya menjalankan adaptasi melalui penyesuaian saiz badan. Sebagai contoh, kucing mempunyai saiz yang kecil supaya nisbah luas permukaan kepada isi padu adalah kecil. Selain daripada itu, jika haiwan seperti gajah ia memerlukan jumlah luas permukaan dengan kulit yang berkedut dan cuping yang besar. Ini membolehkan gajah ini dapat menyesuaikan diri melalui suhu persekitaran dengan mudah.

            Penyesuaian bentuk fizikal haiwan yang lain adalah seperti mempunyai gigi-gigi yang khusus. Gigi haiwan karnivor seperti harimau beradaptasi menjadi empat gigi taring besar dan runcing bagi tujuan menangkap mangsa, serta gigi geraham dengan hujung pemotong yang tajam untuk mencabik mangsanya. Haiwan seperti tenggiling pula beradaptasi melalui muncungnya. Haiwan ini mempunyai muncung yang panjang dengan hujung mulutnya kecil tak bergigi dengan lubang berbentuk celah kecil untuk menyedut semut daripada sarangnya. Haiwan ini juga mempunyai lidah yang panjang dan bergetah yang dapat dijulurkan dengan jarak yang jauh bagi menangkap serangga. Selain itu, haiwan yang mempunyai paruh seperti helang. Helang ini memiliki paruh yang kuat dengan rahang atas yang melengkung dan tajam yang mana ia berfungsi untuk mencengkeram mangsanya.

            Dari segi tumbuhan pula adaptasi morfologi ini boleh dilihat melalui tumbuhan pemakan serangga. Biasanya tumbuhan ini memiliki daun yang berbentuk piala dengan permukaan dalam yang licin sehingga dapat mengelincirkan serangga yang hinggap diatasnya dan dijadikan makanannya. Dengan enzim yang dimiliki tumbuhan tersebut, serangga itu akan dilumatkan sehingga tumbuhan itu memperolehi unsur yang diperlukan. Contoh tumbuhan pemakan serangga ini ialah periuk kera.

            Selain daripada itu, boleh dilihat melalui perubahan kelebaran daun. Dikawasan yang tropika daun tumbuhan ini mempunyai saiz yang besar. Tujuannya ialah bagi membolehkan tumbuhan tersebut menampung air dengan banyak serta mudah untuk disejat. Manakala dikawasan seperti gurun pula daun tumbuhannya lebih kecil dan kebanyakannya tumbuhan yang tidak berdaun seperti kaktus dan tumbuhan ini juga mempunyai batang yang dikhaskan untuk menyimpan air. Tujuan utamanya adalah untuk menyimpan air dalam tempoh masa yang lama.

            Adaptasi fisiologi atau penyesuaian fungsi fisiologi fizikal untuk mempertahankan hidupnya. Kucing, apabila haiwan ini berteduh kadar metabolisme badan kucing tersebut akan direndahkan supaya kadar kehilangan air didalam badan berkurangan. Musang juga beradaptasi dengan cara menyemburkan cairan bagi mengelakkan dirinya daripada musuh. Kelenjar bau yang dimiliki oleh musang tersebut membolehkan musuh tidak dapat menghidu bau musang tersebut. Selain daripada itu haiwan seperti sesumpah pula beradaptasi dengan cara menukarkan warna kulit mengikut keadaan persekitarannya bagi tujuan melindungi diri daripada musuh.

            Terdapat juga spesies katak yang mana mampu beradaptasi dengan persekitarannya melalui perubahan warna dan juga crri-ciri fizikalnya. Sesetengah spesies anurans ini mampu mengubah dirinya seperti daun mati bagi mengelak ancaman daripada musuh. Begitu juga dengan sesetengah spesies ular.

            Adaptasi tingkah laku yang mana melibatkan perubahan tingkah laku. Terdapat beberapa haiwan yang boleh melakukan adaptasi tingkah laku ini. Sebagai contoh, tupai Virginia yang mana tupai tersebut akan berpura-pura mati apabila didekati oleh seekor anjing. Manakala, burung unta pula akan memasukkan kepalanya kedalam tanah apabila haiwan tersebut diancam. Selain daripada itu, migrasi ikan solmon dimana ikan ini hidup di lautan tapi apabila musim mengawan ikan ini akan mencari tempat yang sesuai untuk bertelur. Ikan ini walaupun tinggal di laut tetapi ikan ini akan bertelur di sungai-sungai.

            Dari segi tingkah laku tumbuhan pula, cahaya adalah sumber paling penting dalam menjalankan proses fotosintesis. Terdapat tumbuhan yang tidak mampu untuk bersaing mendapatkan cahaya matahari akan menyebabkan proses pembesaran tumbuhan tersebut mempunyai bentuk fizikal yang melengkung. Hal ini berlaku apabila cahaya matahari hanya terdapat pada satu-satu tempat sahaja kerana dilindungi oleh pokok-pokok yang lebih tinggi dengan tumbuhan tersebut.

            Secara kesimpulannya, proses pengadaptasian yang dilakukan oleh tumbuhan dan haiwan ini disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor. Bagi haiwan proses adaptasi ini kebanyakannya dijalankan untuk menghindarkan diri daripada musuh. Manakala tumbuhan pula disebabkan oleh persaingan yang berlaku dan juga akibat daripada tekanan suhu.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SUMBER RUJUKAN

 http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0512/19/ipt01.html

http://www.kompas.co.id/teknologi/news/0511/17/202506.htm

http://www.wwf.or.id/index.php?fuseaction=whatwedo.desc&language=i

http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0027%20Bio%201-6b.htm

 

 

             

Soalan 1

Kenal pasti kawasan pinggir pantai yang anda hendak kaji.

            Kawasan pinggir pantai yang hendak dikaji ialah kawasan pinggir pantai tanjung lipat. Tanjung lipat merupakan sebuah pinggir pantai yang mana mempunyai bentuk pantainya yang unik. Tanjung lipat juga merupakan satu kawasan yang mudah dikunjungi kerana kedudukannya yang strategik iaitu terletak di tepi jalan raya utama.  Kawasan ini menjadi tumpuan para nelayan kecil dan juga para pemancing di waktu petang. Jarak Tanjung Lipat dari Bandaraya Kota Kinabalu mengambil masa cuma lima hingga sepuluh minit dari Bandaraya.

          Kawasan pinggir pantai tanjung lipat ini terletak di jalan utama yang menghala ke bandaraya kota kinabalu. Kawasan ini berada pada latitude 4.1833333 dan longitude 103.45. Bekas Ketua Menteri Sabah, iaitu Dato Chong Kah Kiat pernah mengumumkan untuk membangunkan Tanjung Lipat sebagai sebuah kawasan tanah tambak. Namun pun begitu ia mendapat banyak bantahan daripada orang ramai. Kami memilih Tanjung Lipat ini kerana ia mempunyai kawasan yang sesuai untuk dikaji bagi tujuan mengenalpasti kaedah yang sesuai dalam menguruskan ekosistem di tepi pantai.

          Kawasan yang dikaji adalah merupakan kawasan yang dibangunkan dengan pelbagai kemudahan seperti tempat rekreasi, pondok, dan juga tempat untuk bermain skateboard. Di kawasan itu juga pinggir pantainya telah dibuat benteng bagi menghalang ombak daripada menghakis pinggir pantai.

         

 

 

 

 

 

 

Soalan 2

Nyatakan bentuk-bentuk muka bumi dan kedudukan geografi bagi kawasan kajian anda (tinggi, lokasi). Jika boleh lakarkan kawasan kajian tersebut.

Latitude 6000’08.84”N 116006’34.35”E elev 31ft

Kawasan Kajian

Latitude 6000’45.25”N Longitude 116006’.71”E elev 23ft

 

Rajah 1: kawasan pinggir Pantai Tanjung Lipat.

 

            Interaksi yang rapat di antara faktor-faktor ini mencerminkan dengan jelas akan tindakan geomofologi yang bertanggungjawab dalam menghasilkan tindakan geomorfologi yang bertanggungjawab dalam menghasilkan ciri-ciri pinggir pantai yang berlainan. Dalam kajian ini, kajian ditumpukan terhadap perubahan-perubahan yang dialami oleh garisan pinggir pantai hasil daripada tindakan berbagai-bagai agen gondolan yang berlainan di garisan pinggir pantai yang diakibatkan oleh tindakan ombak. Tambahan juga, aspek pasang surut turut memainkan pengaruhnya dalam megubah geomorfologi pantai di kawasan kajian.

 

Agen geomorfologi yang terlibat.

Tindakan hakisan ombak

 

          Ombak merupakan agen hakisan yang berpengaruh pada garisan pantai dan hakisan ombak bertindak dalam pelbagai cara yang tertentu. Fenomena ini menghasilkan padang darat fizikal yang berlainan di garisan pinggir. Mekanisme hakisan ombak di garisan pinggir pantai dapat dikelaskan sebagai tindakan hakisan hidrol, geselan atau kikisan, lagaan dan larutan.

          Terdapat pelbagai faktor yang mempengaruhi kadar hakisan ombak do garisan pinggir pantai Tanjung lipat, Antaranya ialah ciri-ciri struktur geologi batuan yang membentuk garisan pinggir pantai berkenaan. Umumnya, batuan yang lebih keras mengalami kadar hakisan yang terhad berbanding batuan yang lembut. Tindakan hakisan ombak ke atas batuan yang berlainan kekerasan ini menjadi faktor penting dalam perkembangan pandang darat fizikal yang terdapat pada di sepanjang garisan pinggir pantai Tanjung Lipat.

          Di samping sifat batuan, tindakan hakisan ombak juga dipengaruhi oleh ciri-ciri kecerunan pinggir pantai. Kecerunan pantai menentukan keluasan garisan pinggir pantai dan seterusnya kadar aliran damparan dan lurutan ombak. Jumlah jisim atau beban yang diangkut oleh ombak digunakan sebagai alat hakisan yang penting secara geselan

 

Bentuk muka bumi hasil hakisan ombak.

          Pelbagai pandang darat yang dihasilkan melalui tindakan hakisan ombak di garisan pinggir pantai. Umumnya, bentuk muka bumi dapat digolongkan kepada dua kumpulan. Pertama, bentuk muka bumi yang berkaitan dengan ciri-ciri pinggir pantai itu sendiri dan kedua bentuk yang terjadi hasil daripada unduran pinggir pantai. Ciri-ciri pinggir pantai atau konfigurasi pinggir pantai lazimnya bergantung kepada sifat struktur geologinya.

          Proses pengangkutan puin-puin oleh tindakan dikendalikan oleh beberapa agen-agen pengangkutan yang penting. Kebanyakan jisin pengengkutan ini adalah sumbangan sungai yang mengalir masuk ke dalam laut dan hanya sedikit sahaja bahan hakisan dari pinggirr pantai itu sendiri dihakis dan dibawa oleh ombak. Puin-puin ini diangkut dalam pelbagai cara termasuklah ampaian, saltasi dan golekan oleh agen-agen ombak seperti arus pesisir, dan bentuk-bentuk ombak yang lain.

 

Bentuk muka bumi

Tembok

          Kawasan pinggir pantai Tanjung Lipat mempunyai kawasan yang unik dan menarik dimana ia mempunyai teluk dan juga bentuk pantainya yang menarik. Tanjung lipat ini terletak dikawasan Likas dan mempunyai tempat yang strategik untuk aktiviti memancing dan menangkap ikan.

          Selain itu, terdapat banyak batu besar dan juga tembok diletakkan di pinggir pantai Tanjung Lipat. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mengawal hakisan daripada berlaku dan juga bertujuan untuk memecahkan ombak yang datang. Campurtangan yang dibina oleh manusia ini bertindak memecahkan ombak yang datang yang disebabkan oleh angin kuat dan proses peningkatan aras lautan di kawasan berkenaan. Pemecah ombak yang dibina menganjur dari kawasan pantai ke arah laut di kawasan tersebut.  Tambajahan juga, pinggir pantai tanjung Lipat yang telah dibina satu benteng pemecah ombak ini dapat menghalang mendapan atau sedimen masuk ke muara.

          Benteng yang dibina membolehkan bentuk pinggir pantai akan berkeadaan statik. Dari segi bentuk muka bumi kawasan kajian adalah tanah rata dimana jalan utama ke pusat bandar dibina dikawasan tersebut. Kedudukan geografi mengikut latitud/longitud ialah latitude 4.1833333 dan longitude 103.45 dengan ketinggian 27 kaki.

 

 

 

 

 

Pantai berpasir

          Bentuk mendapan yang terdapat pada pantai Tanjung Lipat ialah pantai berpasir. Pembentukan pantai ini melibatkan tindakan pengimbangan di antara hakisan dengan mendapan yang terdapat di kawasan tersebut. Hakisan yang terjadi diimbangi oleh mendapan ombak yang berlaku. Fenomena ini menghasilkan profil pantai yang seimbang. Pantai yang bersifat lurus dan lebar, putus-putus dan sempit. Faktor utama yang menentukan ciri-ciri pantai ialah kekuatan ombak dan jumlah bahan mendapan yang terdapat pada kawasan tersebut. Tindakan damparan ombak dan basuhan balik yang terjadi di pinggir pantai boleh menetukan sifat-sifat pantai berpasir ini.

Sila dapatkan dta iklim kawasan kajian anda, cnthnya data hujan, evoporasi dll dp jabatan meteorology.

Ciri­-ciri iklim Malaysia ialah mempunyai suhu yang seragam, kelembapan yang tinggi dan hujan yang banyak. Angin pada amnya lemah. Malaysia yang terletak di kawasan khatulistiwa amat jarang sekali mempunyai keadaan langit tidak berawan langsung meski pun pada musim kemarau teruk. Malaysia juga jarang sekali mempunyai satu tempoh beberapa hari dengan tidak ada langsung cahaya matahari kecuali pada musim monsun timur laut.

Kawasan barat laut pantai Sabah termasukla kawasan Tanjung Lipat mengalami corak hujan dua maksima dan dua minima. Maksimum primer berlaku pada bulan Oktober dan maksimum skunder berlaku pada bulan Jun. Minimum primer berlaku pada bulan Februari manakala minimum skunder berlaku pada bulan Ogos. Walau pun perbezaan jumlah hujan yang diterima pada dua bulan maksimum adalah kecil, namun perbezaan jumlah hujan yang diterima pada minimum primer adalah jelas lebih rendah berbanding skunder minimum. Di sesetengah tempat, perbezaan mencapai setinggi empat kali ganda. Jadual dibawah menunjukkan jumlah hujan di stesen cuaca Kota Kinabalu yang merangkumi seluruh kawasan Kota Kinabalu termasuk Tannjung Lipat.

 

 

 

Jumlah hujan di stesen cuaca Kota Kinabalu

Stesen	Jumlah Hujan  Feb 2007(mm)	Purata Hujan Jangka panjang*(mm)	Peratusan purata  (%)	Terendah Yang Direkod  (mm)	Tertinggi Yang Direkod  (mm)	Rekod Mula    (Tahun)
Kota Kinabalu	27.4	64.4	43	Trace	277.1	1951

 

Sebagai sebuah negara yang terletak di khatulistiwa, Malaysia termasuk Sabah umumnya mengalami suhu yang sekata sepanjang tahun. Perbezaan tahunan suhunya adalah kurang daripada 2^oC. Walaubagaimanapun perubahan suhu tahunannya kurang daripada 3^oC. Perubahan nilai ini adalah disebabkan suhu harian yang rendah yang dialami di kawasan daerah timur semasa monsun timur ­laut hasil daripada hujan dan litupan awan yang luas. Purata suhu pada waktu malam biasanya di antara 21^oC hingga 24^oC. Tetapi nilai suhu dihampir semua stesen bukan sahaja di Kota Kinabalu boleh menurun jauh lebih rendah daripada suhu tersebut , malam yang sejuk biasanya diikuti dengan siang yang panas. Jadual 2 menunjukkan suhu minimum dan maksimum di Kota Kinabalu.

Suhu minimum dan maksimum di stesen Kota Kinabalu

 

Di antara kesemua faktor­-faktor yang mempengaruhi kadar sejatan, keadaan berawan dan suhu adalah merupakan dua faktor terpenting yang saling berkait. Hari yang berawan bermakna kurangnya cahaya matahari seterusnya kurang sinaran matahari menyebabkan suhu menjadi rendah. Ujian daripada data-­data sejatan menunjukkan bahawa bulan­-bulan berawan atau hujan mempunyai kadar sejatan yang rendah sementara bulan kering adalah bulan yang mempunyai kadar sejatan yang tinggi. Stesen Kota Kinabalu mempunyai purata sejatan tertinggi iaitu 6.0mm sehari dalam bulan April berbanding bulan-bulan yang lain.

 

 

 

         

 

Free..

Here's a slideshow showing some of the nature and seascapes of the Southern Ocean. Some of these images, like the southern rightwhale dolphin, were shot north of the Antarctic Convergence, while others are very obviously in the depths of the Antarctic. The orca was seen within sight of the Nisshin Maru - so this should give you some idea of what may be under environmental threat in these waters.

Sabah is among losing battle to the sea
02 October, 2006

Kota Kinabalu: Tanjung Aru Beach in the State's premier tourism belt is one of five stretches of land - or 12.8km out of the total 1,743km along the coastline of Sabah - that has been identified as "critically" under threat by erosion.

This means there is potential danger to life (squatters and residents) or properties or both.

The 3.5km beach has been classified by the Federal Government as Category 1 (a critical coastal erosion site), along with the Tinagat-Batu Puyong stretch near Tawau, Kota Kinabalu City Central-Yayasan Sabah stretch, Kg Contoh-Putatan and Meruntum-Lok Kawi.

Senior Assistant Director (Erosion Control) of the Department of Drainage and Irrigation (DID), Nor Hisham Ghazali, said these five areas were currently placed under observation for possible coastal protection works.

In the case of Tanjung Aru, he said it was placed under Category 1 due to development activities going on nearby. One portion of the 3km stretch of beach is devoid of structures while another portion is occupied by squatters and for which a RM40 Federal-funded project is due to be implemented once the squatters have been relocated.

According to the findings of the Federal-funded National Coastal Erosion Study, which was completed in 1985, approximately 295.5km of the State's 1.743km total coastline are eroding.

The study, conducted due to concerns over serious coastal erosion along the country's coastline, also classified another 3.5km as Category 2 (significant) and 279.2km as Category 3 (acceptable).

Nor Hisham said altogether there were 19 stretches of coastal areas in Sabah identified as eroding and placed under the three categories, according to the seriousness of their respective erosion problem.

He also said there was not much difference in terms of percentage of the total eroding coastline in Sabah compared to the previous findings, that put it at about 17 per cent of the total 1,743km coastline.

But the department is concerned over the increase in Category 1 areas in Sabah to 12.8km from the previous 5.7km, he said, adding this is probably due to the heavy development and the increase in urban population especially along the State's coast.

"We, together with our counterpart in the State, will continue to monitor these Category 1 areas so as to facilitate the next course of action to be taken," he said, adding a study needs to be done to evaluate, for instance, the economic concerns of a particular site before any decision is made to carry out coastal protection work.

DID Director-General, Datuk Keizrul Abdullah, was quoted by the national media on Monday as saying that 223 stretches of the country's coast - or 1,414km of land - are being eroded.

It was also reported that thousands of lives and millions of ringgit in property are in danger in at least 93 areas of the country as the hungry sea continues to gobble up land. Thirty-three areas, the authorities confirmed, are losing stretches of up to 40 metres of land a year.

The number of "critical" areas has increased in the last 10 years, despite government efforts to stem the tide. In 1986, there were 74 areas on the "critical list" of the DID. Today there are 93.

The DID classifies a "critical" area as one where erosion has reached a stage where it endangers life or property or both, while a "significant" area is one which is likely to fall into the "critical" category in the next five years and an "acceptable" area is one where erosion is not serious and does not endanger life or property.

Kedah was mentioned as being the state with the most number of beaches in the "critical" category with 16 beaches, followed by Pahang with 11 beaches and Selangor with 10 beaches. Keizrul said erosion was caused by sea currents, called "littoral drifts", and human activity.

Keizrul said the DID had two ways of dealing with erosion - short-term curative measures and long-term preventive measures.

Short-term measures include placing large rocks or linking concrete blocks, called "revetment", on the beach to absorb the force of the waves. For example, this would be done especially when there is a road along that identified coastal site.

Another way is to induce sedimentation by placing "groynes", which are structures built into the sea, to keep the sand within the zone created by it.

As for beaches with aesthetic value, it entails something called "beach nourishment" where sand is brought to that particular area concerned once every five years. This is because placing rocks would mean there would no longer be a beach.

Preventive measures include the implementation of an Integrated Shoreline Management Plan (ISMP) for the various states, which includes the setting up of zones and controlling development in sensitive areas.

The National Coastal Erosion Council in 1995 requested the Federal Economic Planning Unit (EPU) to form a committee to formulate guidelines for erosion control for development projects in the coastal zone. This guideline "Guidelines on Erosion Control for Development Projects in the Coastal Zone" was done by the federal DID and was subsequently approved by Federal Cabinet in January, 1997, to be implemented.

The Sabah government has also taken the initiative to establish an overall Shoreline Management Plan (SMP) to primarily ensure the development of any marine reclamation project is undertaken with the aim of minimising the negative impact on the physical-chemical and biological-ecological environment, with an overall positive effect upon socio-economic properties, and within a sustainable operational frame.

The SMP has delineated areas suitable for development purposes and areas to be conserved along the West Coast of Sabah from Ambong Bay in the North to Menggalong River in the South for conservation and development purposes based upon the existing environment, resources and potential environmental impact associated with development in the given areas.

Terms of Reference (TOR) for Detailed Environmental Impact Assessment for Marine Reclamation has been developed by the State government as a guide for developers in order to ensure a standard of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) conformance and in compliance to Federal and State EIA requirements for approval of marine reclamation projects.

Supporting TOR for Environmental Monitoring and Management of Marine Reclamation projects are also available as guidelines.

DID Sabah works closely with its federal counterpart, for the planning and designing of coastal erosion control, river mouth improvement works and the cleaning of recreational beaches as well as collection and dissemination of data related to coastal engineering.

DID Malaysia, with co-ordination from DID Sabah, has carried out three feasibility study projects for three areas, namely, Tinagat-Batu Puyong near Tawau, Tungku near Lahad Datu and Tanjong Aru-Kinarut coastal zone near Kota Kinabalu which are classified as Category 1 in the State. DID Sabah is also working closely with other government departments/agencies involved in coastal zone management, one such effort being the Sabah Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) project.

Meanwhile, Nor Hisham said there was a possibility that Pantai Manis in Papar, which up to the 1980s was a popular picnic spot, has become the latest addition to the Category 1 list.

He said there was already a recommendation made for this, after the beach was found to be eroding naturally with a reduction in supply sand noted.

"I went to Pantai Manis about two years ago, it was a beautiful sandy beach, so it is sad É but we are still looking into it," he said, adding the DID depends on the recommendation made by the State before proceeding with any decision to carry out any coastal protection work.

He said there were works carried out by the department in Sabah but these are scattered into small erosion sites which are very localised.

"We leave it to DID Sabah to determine where these are because they are more familiar with the situation in the State," he said.

Overview of the Intergrated coastal zone management (ICZM) Project

By

Mr. Gorm Jeppesen

Resident ICZM Project Advisor

Introduction

The ICZM Project in Sabah is part of the national pilot project in Malaysia and jointly funded by DANCED (Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development) and Sabah State Government. The overall project is designed to prepare an Integrated Coastal Zone Management system in the states of Penang, Sabah and Sarawak, including coastal profiles. Furthermore, it contains a federal component addressing policy and strategy development related to ICZM at national level.

Background of DANCED/MALAYSIA Coastal Zone Management

The Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED) was established as a follow-up to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro 1992. In 1993 the Danish Parliament allocated funds under the Environment and Disaster Relief Facility (EDRF) to promote transfer of environmental technology and know-how to developing countries through DANCED. The Programme is managed by the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy in co-ordination with the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The overall objective is to contribute to the restoring of the global environment in accordance with the recommendations of the UNCED Conference (Agenda 21). The activities of DANCED are at present concentrated in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa. Activities started in Thailand and Malaysia in 1994 and in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana in 1995.

Thematic areas of the DANCED/Malaysia projects include Urban Development and Industrialisation; Sustainable Use of Energy; Agriculture; Water Resources; Forests and Wood Resources; Biological Diversity; and Coastal zones.

Projects already under implementation in Malaysia include: Cleaner technology; Tasek Brea; Capacity building Economic Planning Unit; River rehabilitation; Sabah biodiversity; Coastal Zone Management, Malaysia; Peat swamp forestry; University Malaysia, Sabah; Mangrove forests; Forest residues; Perlis State Park; Pig waste; and Human Resources Development – Department of Environment.

Additional projects are in different stages of preparation. Although projects are located all over Malaysia the DANCED programme has a particular focus on East Malaysia.

Examples of DANCED's coastal zone management (CZM) projects in other countries are: Songhkla Lake Management in Thailand and Walvis Bay CZM in Namibia.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Management of coastal systems has become the focus of many national and international projects. Coastal systems extend beyond jurisdictional boundaries and are affected by impacts of many local users and by decisions made by different levels of government. The management of coastal systems requires involvement of many agencies at different levels of government. The system is interconnected and no single agency has controls transfer between systems. As a whole, the coastal system is dynamic and complex .

There is a need to improve horizontal integration of separate economic sectors and units of government with planning and management roles and also improve the vertical integration of different levels of planning and management (government and non-government). ICZM's holistic perspectives combine land and sea processes, and exercises multi-disciplinary approach in analyses and assessments. The approach combines planning, management, education and research.

The management of coastal zones refers to the management of activities with significant impact on the coastal zones. Coastal systems as such, to a large extent, function on their own.

Important events in the development of the ICZM Project in Malaysia

The ICZM project in Malaysia was proposed to the country-programming mission that was fielded by DANCED in 1994. It was intended to consolidate CZM activities in Malaysia carried out in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The project preparation was completed over a period of two years allowing the implementation to start in late 1996. The most important activities and dates leading to the project have been:

• ICLARM/USAID[1] Regional ICZM Programme/Johore 1986-1992;
• ADB/Malaysian Erosion Study [2] - late 1980s;
• Malaysian ICZM Policy and Strategy Formulation Initiative (Federal EPU) 1991;
• UNCED 1992;
• DANCED 1993;
• DANCED Programme Initiation 1994;
• ICZM Project Identification 1994;
• ICZM Project Formulation 1994 & 1995;
• Government to government Agreement 4 December 1995;
• Tendering February/March 1996;
• Project Initiation, Malaysia, 16 September 1996; and
• Project Initiation Sabah, 21 September 1996.

The DANCED allocation for the overall project from 1996 to 1999 is approximately 13 million Ringgit.

Project Document - Problem Tree

The background for the ICZM project was a growing awareness of the problems experienced in coastal areas and their linkage to economic development and increasing population pressure. Its approach has been to analyse these problems with the view of establishing cause and effect relationships. The results of these analyses are visualised in the project's Problem Tree in Figure 1 on page 17. The key problem identified by the project is the unsustainable management of the coastal zone of Sabah as reflected in the increased pollution experienced in coastal areas, in the physical degradation of coastal environments and in the deterioration of coastal habitats and resources. Although Sabah compared to other states of Malaysia still has huge areas of relatively unspoiled coastal areas, pollution is becoming common around the major coastal towns, both on land and in the near shore waters. Significant parts of the coastal zone of Sabah are undergoing physical degradation opening up for loss of areas due to erosion and lowering coastline protection in general. This may be caused by insufficiently planned and uncoordinated reclamation works along the coast changing flow patterns and causing erosion in adjacent areas, it may be due to extensive physical destruction of the coral reefs from fish bombing or it may be due to the encroachment into mangrove areas opening up for wave erosion. Deterioration of for example the coral habitats has been going on at an alarming rate and coastal fisheries is carried out far above sustainable yield levels depleting fisheries resources.

The project considers these environmental problems as symptoms of or effects from unsustainable management and its strategy is to address the causes for insufficient management capacity. The identified causes can be seen in the root of the problem tree in Figure 1 , page 17. The main causes have been grouped as a lack of coherent and integrated management and policies, a lack of awareness and public participation and weak enforcement. The further differentiation of these groups into other causes can be seen form the figure.

Project Document – Objective Tree

The project's objectives and outputs are best visualised in the objective tree, which is established through a reversal of the project tree discussed earlier. Sabah's long term interest and goal for the coastal zone is to maintain or increase its sustainable economic and ecological potential. The project will contribute to achieving this by focusing on the management capacity among coastal stakeholders. In consequence the medium term or intermediate objective of the project is Sustainable Management of the Coastal Zone of Sabah. The immediate objectives, which the project pursues within its term, are Coherent and Integrated Management and Policies for the Coastal Zone , Raised Awareness and Increased Public Participation in Coastal Management and Strengthened Enforcement of Regulations for Coastal Zone Development . The relationships between these different level objectives can be seen in the project's objective tree in Figure 2 on page 18, where the two bottom lines of boxes represent the outputs targeted to reach the objectives.

Project Strategies

Focusing on management capacity rather than management plans or products the project has adopted a process oriented strategy in which actors in the existing institutional machinery are identified and activated in the coastal zone management process, i.e. the participatory approach. It is local stakeholders in coastal development that will be carrying out the activities under the project, however supported with technical assistance from foreign advisors and local consultants. The project therefore requires a shift in perception among institutional stakeholders from servicing projects by providing information and dialogue to consultants who then do the work, to, doing the work with advisors providing the enabling environment. Only in this way can it be insured that local experience becomes fully incorporated in the management, that full local ownership is established for the management outcome and that capacity is build up to go through the planning and ensure other aspects of the management of the coastal development..

Figure 1: Problem Tree for the ICZM Project in Sabah.

Figure 2: Objective Tree for the ICZM Project in Sabah

Task Force Concept

The most important single element in the ICZM project is the Task Force system, which can be considered as the main engine to achieve the immediate objectives of the project. It is a bearing strategy of the project that all key activities related to the preparation of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan will be carried out by Task Forces composed of representatives selected from government agencies and private stakeholders. The approach, which is critical for the sustainability of the project, amongst others serves the following purposes:

1. It locates and activates existing responsibilities, capacities and interests related or relevant to coastal zone management tasks and brings them together in an environment where problems, issues and actions can be addressed in a co-ordinating forum. In the process weaknesses or gaps in capacity and conflicts in interest and responsibilities will be identified, which will provide orientation as to where the ICZM project should focus its activities and resources.
2. It provides a linkage and access to institutional expertise and experience in an issue specific context. This in turn will assist in identifying and mobilising the relevant resources potentially available to the project
3. It will assist in the dissemination of information about and by the project as well as create awareness related to the coastal zone management issues. Both dissemination and awareness raising is much more efficient when it is "carried" through active participation as opposed to passive reception.
4. It will promote the multi-disciplinary team approach required in true integrated management.
5. It will provide ideal opportunities for training by doing. Training activities under the project will focus on Task Forces both through technology transfer from external consultants but also in targeting candidates for dedicated training efforts either through workshops or other activities in Sabah or through national, regional or overseas activities.
6. It will initiate and reinforce the formation of an institutional and personalised ICZM network among individuals with responsibilities related to ICZM.
7. It will make the ICZM Plan a "local" product generated through the work carried out by the existing government machinery and supported by the coastal zone stakeholders. The ownership thus established will facilitate the implementation of the plan and significantly enhance enforcement.
8. Last but not least, it will provide the manpower resources to carry out the numerous and demanding tasks required by the project. The resources available to the project in terms of the ICZM Unit staff and its access to consultancy input is by far insufficient to implement the project, nor would a management plan prepared in such a context have much hope of being implemented.

The success of the ICZM project relies on how efficiently the Task Force system can be made to operate. The impression gained in the implementation of the project until now is that the Task Force approach is new to most stakeholders,

A number of Task Forces have already been mobilised under the project and others will be activated to carry out the different tasks involved in the ICZM Plan preparation process and to address particular coastal management issues as they emerge.

Mobilised Task Forces under the ICZM Project

Task Forces 1, 2 and 3 were mobilised during the first 4 months after the project started in September 1996. Task Force 4 and 5 have started in December 1997. A short outline of Task Force 1 to 4 is provided below. Task Force 5 is dealt with in a separate presentation at the workshop.

Task Force No. 1

Determination of the Coastal Zone in Sabah

The objectives of Task Force 1 were to determine the landward and seaward boundaries for the area to be covered by the Coastal Zone Management Plan Document. The overall recommendations from the Task Force are for the inland boundary to let it be defined by the 60-m contour line, with deviations according to local issues arising (e.g. existing or potential development areas). The seaward boundary recommended is the EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone). After having submitted these conceptual recommendations on the boundaries to the ICZM Technical Committee in Sabah the Task Force has stopped its activities. The recommendations as well as supporting material have been submitted to the ICZM Unit.

The composition of Task Force 1 is listed below:

• Sabah State Development Department
• Department of Lands and Survey
• Drainage and Irrigation Department
• Department of Forestry
• Department of Fisheries
• Department of Agriculture
• Geological Department
• Ports and Harbours
• Marine Department
• Town and Regional Planning Department
• Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development (MTED)
• Ministry of Industrial Development and Research.

The Director of Town and Regional Planning Department chaired the Task Force.

Task Force No. 2

Environmental Management

The objectives of this task force are to establish a comprehensive overview of the existing environment management system as applied to Sabah, and also to consider strategies for environmental management to be used in development, planning and management in coastal areas. Important elements of environmental management are impact assessments, monitoring, resources accounting, monitoring and environmental auditing. Task Force 2 is expected to continue its work throughout most of the project's term.

The composition of Task Force 2 is listed below:

• Department of Environment
• MTED
• Drainage and Irrigation Department
• Department of Forestry
• Department of Fisheries
• Department of Agriculture
• Ministry of Local Government and Housing
• Ministry of Rural Development
• Geological Survey Department
• Department of Ports and Harbours
• Marine Department
• Sabah Environmental Protection Association
• Sabah Society
• World Wildlife Fund
• Office of Natural Resources
• Local authorities
• Sabah Parks
• University Malaysia Sabah.

The Task Force is chaired by the Director of Department of Environment, Sabah Office.

Task Force No. 3

MIS/GIS

The objectives of Task Force 3 were to establish a comprehensive overview of present MIS/GIS application in Sabah, and to formulate a strategy for implementation of MIS/GIS in support of CZM. The Task Force has recommended that actions be taken towards establishing a GIS Clearing House in Sabah under the auspices of the IT Council with the view of co-ordinating current and coming GIS activities, and ensure data and system compatibility. These recommendations were given, as it became clear that GIS implementation in different institutions was carried out largely uncoordinated. The Task Force stopped its activities after having prepared a strategy paper and after having recommended on the GIS Platform for the ICZM Project.

The composition of Task Force 3 includes:

• Institute of Development Studies, Sabah
• Town and Regional Planning Department
• Department of Lands and Survey
• Department of Forestry
• Department of Fisheries
• Department of Agriculture
• Public Works
• Computer Department
• Local Consultant
• Foreign Consultants.

The Task Force was chaired by Institute of Development Studies, Sabah, who at the time was heavily involved in activities with the IT Council including the drafting of an IT Master Plan for the State.

Task Force No. 4

Application of Environmental & Computerised Tools for Spatial Planning

Task Force 4 is under mobilisation on the West Coast and is liasing with two on-going studies i.e. the Regional EIA and Shoreline Management Plan Study, examining the feasibility of reclaiming a number of man-made islands along the coast, and also the Sungai Moyog Integrated Catchment Management Plan Study. The main objective of Task Force 4 is to assist in the formulation of a spatial plan for the Coastal Zone using GIS/RS and DBMS techniques and environmental management and planning tools.

The Task Force composition is:

• Town and Regional Planning Department
• Representative from Shoreline EIA project
• Representative from Catchment Plan Project
• KK Municipal Council
• Drainage and Irrigation Department
• MTED
• Fisheries Department
• Ports and Harbours
• Sabah Port Authority
• Forestry Department
• Agricultural Department
• Public Works Department
• Department of Environment (Federal)
• Land and Survey Department
• Department of Statistics (Federal)
• Marine Department (Federal)
• NGOS, UMS
• Sandakan MC, Tawau MC, District Offices, T& RPD.

The Task Force is chaired by the Director of Town and Regional Planning Department.

Project Implementation Phases

The project implementation operates with three phases, not counting the Inception Period which was completed in April 1997, and which served to adjust the project to accommodate the experience gained in the first 7 months of implementation. Phase 1, with a duration of approximately 1 year, focuses on developing and training in various tools required for management purposes, including the initiation of a system to generate coastal profiles. In the end of Phase 1 a Coastal Profile will be prepared based upon existing data and information in Sabah and terms of reference for the preparation of an ICZM Plan will be drafted. The subsequent Phase 2 will be the period were the ICZM Planning Process will be carried out leading to the drafting of the first ICZM Plan for Sabah. Phase 3, with a duration of 3 months, will be used to finalise the ICZM Plan and to consider follow-up activities. Below is an outline of some of the activities in the three Phases as they appeared in the Project Document after the Inception Revision in May 1997. As the project however has experienced delays revised dates have been included in brackets.

First Phase

May 1997 - April 1998 (July 1998)

Preparation of Sabah Coastal Profile

• Completion of Task Force 1 through the preparation of its consolidated report.
• Completion of Task Force 3 (MIS/GIS).
• Work on the Rapid Assessment of the Coastal Environment including organising the baseline data for the Coastal Profile will be finalised by Task Force 2 and Task Force 4.
• Consideration of environmental management tools (EIAs, Environmental Auditing, Natural resources Accounting, Conservation, and Enforcement) by Task Force 2, 4 and 5.
• Determination of Pilot Areas for Task Force 4 and 5.
• Initiation of Task Force 4. The timing will be determined by the progress of primarily the shoreline management and macro environmental impact assessment studies on the West Coast.
• Implementation of the GIS facilities related to Task Force 4 work, including required initial training.
• Initiation of Task Force 5. Workshop in the pilot project area including awareness raising is undertaken.
• Continued in-office training of the ICZM Unit's staff, preparation and implementation of overseas/regional training in environmental management.
• Preparation for Initiation of Sector Task Forces.
• Stakeholders analyses and awareness raising.
• Preparation for the initiation of Task Force 6 on Marine Management

Second Phase

July 1998 - June 1999

ICZM Plan Preparation

• Preparation of development of land and water use plans.
• Preparation of zoning, i.e. planning and development of sets of criteria, etc.
• Selecting and setting up the environmental warning system will be developed together with support provided to lower levels of governments.
• Environmental management tools will be tested and further developed in the designated pilot project areas.
• ICZM planning and application of analytical tools i.e. with the usage of GIS will be initiated.

Third Phase

July 1999 – September 1999 (November)

ICZM Plan

• Completion, presentation and discussion of Draft Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan and associated Guidelines for Sabah.
• Follow-up considerations.

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[1] ICLARM is the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management located in Manila, Philippines. USAID is the US Agency for International Development Assistance. In addition to the project component in Johor five other ASEAN countries participated in the program, each with a pilot site.

[2] Asian Development Bank financed a nation wide study, which identified areas in Malaysia subject to erosion and classified these into three categories according to severity. It was strongly recommended that coastal erosion management activities in Malaysia be carried out within an overall ICZM policy and strategic framework.